There is a great demand for products able to inhibit or prevent excessive pigmentation of the skin. Melanin, the skin's natural pigment, is a nitrogenous polymer synthesized in melanosomes, which are membrane-bound organelle present within melanocytes. Melanin is produced in varying concentrations, depending on skin type (genetic disposition) and environmental conditions. Melanocytes are cells that occur in the basal membrane of the epidermis, and account for between 5% and 10% of the cellular content (approximately 1200-1500 melanocytes per cm2). When stimulated, by factors such as ultraviolet (UV) light melanocytes divide more rapidly, thereby producing greater quantities of melanin. The melanin is then transported in mature melanosomes to keratinocytes, within the epidermis where it becomes visible as a brown skin color.
The number of melanocytes in human skin is more or less the same, irrespective of skin color. The color of the skin is largely dependent on the quantity and type of melanin produced (black eumelanin or yellow to reddish-brown pheomelanin). Asians and light-skinned people have lower levels of eumelanin than dark-skinned people, and correspondingly less protection against the effects of radiation. People with red hair are characterized by pigmentation with pheomelanin, and have little or no photo-protection. Additionally, the distribution of melanin in the skin also varies. In people with light skin, the greater part of the pigment lies in the basal layer, whereas in those with dark skin, the melanin is spread throughout, reaching into the horny layer.
The over production of melanin can cause different types of abnormal skin color, hair color and other diseases and conditions of the skin. There are primarily two conditions related to skin pigmentation disorders. A darkening of the skin that includes abnormal elevated melanin caused by UV exposure and aging; and abnormal distribution of skin pigments resulting in age spots, liver spots, and drug and wound/disease induced hyperpigmentation (Seiberg et al. (2000) J. Invest. Dermatol. 115:162; Paine et al. (2001) J. Invest. Dermatol. 116:587).
Modulators of melanogenesis (the production of melanin) may be designed or chosen to function in a variety of ways as illustrated in FIG. 1. With reference to FIG. 1, they may act directly on modulating melanosome structure and function prior to melanin synthesis, they may act by inhibiting the production or function of enzymes, such as tyrosinase, which are involved in the synthesis of melanin, they may changing the ratio of eumelanin/pheomelanin, or they may function by damping mechanisms responsible for transfer of melanosomes from melanocyte to keratinocytes. (Briganti et al. (2003) Pigment Cell Research 16:101-110).
Tyrosinase is a key enzyme in the production of melanin. It catalyzes three reactions: the hydroxylation of tyrosine to 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), oxidation of DOPA to DOPA quinone and the oxidation of DHI (5,6-dihydroxyindole) to indole quinone. (Hearing et al. (1991) FASEB 53:515). It has been determined that tyrosinase needs both the substrate and divalent metal ions for its catalytic activity. The processes currently used for inhibiting the synthesis of melanin with a view to lightening skin are primarily based on substances which inhibit tyrosinase activity, either directly by interacting with tyrosinase itself, or indirectly e.g., by complexing the necessary metal ions.
Tyrosinase belongs to the family of type 3 copper proteins, which contain two copper ions at their active site. Studies of the structure of the active site of tyrosinase have revealed that the two copper ions are closely spaced and each ion is coordinated to three histidines through the N-ε nitrogen atom of its side chain, as illustrated in FIG. 2. (Pfiffner and Lerch (1981) Biochem. 20: 6029; Cuff et al. (1998) J. Mol. Biol. 278:855). The binuclear copper ions can exist in three main redox forms: the CuI—CuI reduced form, the CuII—O2—CuII form which reversibly binds to O2 as the peroxide, and the resting form of the enzyme, where the Cu2+ ions are normally bridged by a small ligand. It has been determined that the CuII—O2—CuII redox state is key to the enzymatic activity of tyrosinase. In this state, tyrosinase catalyzes the introduction of a second hydroxyl group to the ortho position of a mono-phenol (such as tyrosine) a reaction which is key to the biosynthesis of melanin.
Any compound, which interferes with the access, ligand formation, or the oxidation of monophenols at the active site of tyrosinase, will be an efficient inhibitor of tyrosinase, potentially resulting in a decrease in the production of melanin and lighter skin color. Generally speaking, the copper ions at the active site of tyrosinase can be easily chelated with lone pair electrons on oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and halogens. (Weder et al. (1999) Inorg. Chem. 38:1736). FIG. 3 illustrates the structures and mechanisms of action of several known tyrosinase inhibitors. (Briganti et al. (2003) Pigment Cell Research 16:101-110; Seo et al. (2003) J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:2837).
With reference to FIG. 3, it can be seen that compounds with structures similar to 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), such as hydroquinone, both inhibit tyrosinase and are also melanocytolytic agents. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,523,077). For example, arbutin, isolated from the leaves of the common bearberry, Uvae ursi, is a naturally occurring beta-glucopyranoside of hydroquinone, which inhibits tyrosinase and effects melanin synthesis in human melanocytes. (Chakraborty et al. (1998) Pigment Cell Res. 11:206; U.S. Pat. No. 5,980,904). The mechanism of action for arbutin involves competition with L-tyrosine or L-dopa for binding at the active site of tyrosinase. It does not suppress the expression or the synthesis of the protein. (Maeda and Fukuda (1996) J. Pharmacol. Exp. 276:765). Synthetic arbutin type compounds also strongly inhibit human tyrosinase. (Sugimoto et al. (2003) Chem. Pharm. Bull. 51:798). Kinobeon A, a novel diquinone isolated from cultured cells of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), has tyrosinase inhibitory activity greater than that of kojic acid. (Kanehira et al. (2003) Planta Med. 69:457). If applied over long periods of time or in high concentrations hydroquinones can have serious side effects. Additionally, hydroquinones may lead to permanent de-pigmentation, and thus to increased photosensitivity of the skin when exposed to UV light.
Better-tolerated skin lightening substances currently being used are of natural origin. For example, kojic acid is a natural hydroxyl-γ-pyrone derived from carbohydrate solutions containing certain bacteria. With reference to FIG. 3, it can be seen that kojic acid is an oxidized ortho-dihydroxyphenol. Kojic acid is known to form strong chelates with metal ions especially CuII. (Gerard and Hugel (1975) Bull. Soc. Chim. Fr. 42:2404). It is a potent competitive, but slow binding inhibitor of tyrosinase. (Cabanes et al. (1994) J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 46:982). Recent studies have shown that kojic acid acts as a bridging ligand, binding strongly to both the dicopper (II) complex and to the dicopper-dioxygen adduct, thereby preventing the binding of the catechol substrate to the enzyme. (Battaini et al. (2000) JBIC 5:262). Kojic acid and its esters have been patented for use as skin whiteners. (see U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,369,174; 4,771060; 5,824,327; 5,427,775; 4,990,330).
Flavonoids are another class of natural products that have been reported as inhibitors of tyrosinase. (Shimizu et al. (2000) Planta Med. 66:11; Xie et al. (2003) Biochem. 68:487). Active tyrosinase inhibitors include flavones (Likhitwitayawuid et al. (2000) Planta Med. 66:275), flavonols (Kubo and Kinst-Hori (1999) J. Agric. Food Chem. 47:4121), prenylnated flavonoids (Kuniyoshi et al. (2002) Planta Med. 68:79; Son et al. (2003) Planta Med. 69:559; Kim et al. (2003) Biol. Pharm. Bull. 26:1348), flavans (No et al. (1999) Life Sci. 65:PL241; Kim et al. (2004) Biomacromolecules 5:474), and dihydro-chalcones (Shoji et al. (1997) Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 61:1963).
Other types of tyrosinase inhibitors include: phenol derivatives (Sakuma et al. (1999) Arch. Pharm. Res. 22:335; Kerry and Rice-Evans (1999) J. Neurochem. 73:247; Battaini et al. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277:44606), benzaldehydes (Kubo and Kinst-Hori (1999) Plant Medica 65:19; Chen et al. (2003) J. Enzyme Inhib Med. Chem. 18:491; Nihei et al. (2004) Bioorg. Med. Chem. 14:681), benzoic acid derivatives (Curto et al. (1999) Biochem Pharmacol. 57:663; Chen et al. (2003) J. Protein Chem. 22:607; Miyazawa et al. (2003) J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:9653; Kubo et al. (2003) Z. Naturforsch [C] 58:713), cupferron (Xie et al. (2003) Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 35:1658), benzodipyran from Glycyrrhiza uralensis root (Yokota et al. (1998) Pigment Cell Res. 11:335), thiohydroxyl compounds (Park et al. (2003) J. Protein Chem. 22:613), terpenoids (Oh et al. (2002) Planta Med. 68:832), and oxazolodinethione (Seo et al. (1999) Planta Med. 65:683). The most potent known natural tyrosinase inhibitors are stilbenes (IC50=0.3-5 μM) (Shin et al. (1998) Biochem Biophys. Res. Commun. 243:801; Ohguchi et al. (2003) Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 67:1587), stilbene glycosides (Lida et al. (1995) Planta Med. 61:425) and 4-substituted resorcinols (Shimizu et al. (2000) Planta Med. 66:11).
A structure/activity study of 4-substituted resorcinols reveals that hydrophobic and less bulky substituents, such as —CH2C6H5, and alkyl groups i.e. —CH2CH2CH3 have the greatest potency with IC50's of less than 10 μM (Shimizu et al. (2000) Planta Med. 66:11). The mechanism of action for 4-substituted resorcinols has been characterized as slow-binding competitive inhibition of the oxidation of DL-β-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)alanine (DL-dopa) (Jimenez and Garcia-Carmona (1997) J. Agric. Food Chem. 45:2061) without any further understanding of the metal chelating effects on binuclear copper ions.
Aloe, a member of the Lily family, is an intricate plant that contains many biologically active substances. (Cohen et al. (1992) in Wound Healing/Biochemical and Clinical Aspects, 1st ed. W B Saunders, Philadelphia). Over 360 species of Aloe are known, most of which are indigenous to Africa. Historically, Aloe products have been used in dermatological applications for the treatment of burns, sores and other wounds. These uses have stimulated a great deal of research in identifying compounds from Aloe plants that have clinical activity. (See, e.g., Grindlay and Reynolds (1986) J. of Ethnopharmacology 16:117-151; Hart et al. (1988) J. of Ethnopharmacology 23:61-71).
Yagi et al. disclose a group of compounds isolated from Aloe, particularly aloesin and one of its derivatives, 2″-O-feruloylaloesin, which are effective inhibitors of tyrosinase. (Yagi et al. (1987) Plant Medica 515-517; Yagi et al. (1977) Z. Naturforsch 32c:731-734). Aloesin, a C-glucosylated 5-methylchromone inhibited human tyrosinase hydroxylase activity in a dose dependent manner with an IC50 of 0.92 mM and also inhibited DOPA oxidase activity in a dose dependent manner with IC50=0.70 mM compared to kojic acid, which has an IC50=0.41 mM, and arbutin which has an IC50=3.02 mM. Inhibition of tyrosinase enzymatic activity and consequent melanin formation by aloesin was confirmed in a cell-based assay using B16 F1 murine melanoma cells. Melanin biosynthesis was inhibited by aloesin (IC50=0.167 mM) in a dose dependent manner. (Jones et al. (2002) Pigment. Cell Res. 15:335). The mechanism of action of tyrosinase inhibition for aloe chromones is speculated as being related to the reduction of copper ions. Both natural (U.S. Pat. No. 6,451,357), semi-synthetic (U.S. Pat. No. 5,801,256; U.S. Pat. No. 6,083,976) and formulated aloe chromones (U.S. Pat. No. 6,123,959) have been patented for their skin whitening ability.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C from synthetic and natural sources such as citrus fruits) and its derivatives have also been utilized for skin whitening. In most cases, vitamin C is formulated with kojic acid or other tyrosinase inhibitors (U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,919,921; 6,458,379 and 5,916,915). Other reported skin whitening compounds include extracts from olive plants (U.S. Pat. No. 6,682,763), unsaturated long chain fatty acids (U.S. Pat. No. 6,669,932), curcumins (U.S. Pat. No. 6,641,845), enzyme extracts (U.S. Pat. No. 6,514,506), coumestrol (U.S. Pat. No. 6,503,941), hydroxyl carboxylic acids (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,417,226; 6,365,137; 5,609,875; 5,262,153), beta-glucans (U.S. Pat. No. 6,251,877), aloe chromones (U.S. Pat. No. 6,083,976), phenylalanine compounds (U.S. Pat. No. 5,767,158), rutin (U.S. Pat. No. 5,145,782), escinol (U.S. Pat. No. 5,728,683), salicylic acids (U.S. Pat. No. 5,700,784), angiogenin (U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,185), mercaptodextran (U.S. Pat. No. 6,077,503), ellagic acid (U.S. Pat. No. 6,066,312), phosphinic acids (U.S. Pat. No. 6,280,715), boron containing compounds (U.S. Pat. No. 5,993,835), plant extracts (from Pueraria, U.S. Pat. No. 6,352,685; Moms, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,197,304; 6,066,312; and 5,872,254; acerola cherry fermentate, U.S. Pat. No. 5,747,006; furanones, U.S. Pat. No. 5,602,256; and others, U.S. Pat. No. 5,773,014).
Diarylalkanes are a rare class of natural product. To date, there are more than 179,000 natural compounds listed in the Dictionary of Natural Products on CD-ROM (Chapman & Hall/CRC, Version 12:2 Jan. 2004), of which only 82 are diarylpropanes (n=3). Broussonetia papyrifera is a deciduous tree in Moracea family and more than twenty diarylpropanes have been isolated from this genera alone (Keto et al. (1986) Chem. Pharm. Bull. 34:2448; Ikuta et al. (1986) Chem. Pharm. Bull. 34:1968; Takasugi et al. (1984) Chem. Lett. 689; Gonzalez et al. (1993) Phytochem. 32:433). Bioassay directed fractionation of an extract of Broussonetia papyrifera yielded four diarylpropanes which did not have aromatase inhibitory activity. (Lee et al. (2001) J. Nat. Prod. 64:1286). However, two prenylated diarylpropanes isolated from the same plant exhibited cytotoxicity against several cancer cell lines (Ko et al. (1999) J. Nat. Prod. 62:164) and broussonin A exhibited anti-fungal activity (lida et al. (1999) Yakugaku Zasshi. 119:964).
A number of diarylalkanes have also been isolated from the Iryanthera species (Myristicaceae). (Alyea et al. (1975) Phytochem. 14:2832; de Almeida et al. (1979) Phytochem. 18:1015; Braz et al. (1980) Phytochem. 19:1195; Diaz et al. (1986) Phytochem. 25:2395). Four dihydrochalcones isolated from Iryanthera lancifolia showed antioxidant activity (Silva et al. (1999) J. Nat. Prod. 62:1475). A number diarylpropanes have also been were isolated from the Virola species of Myristicaceae. (Braz et al. (1976) Phytochem. 15:567; Hagos et al. (1987) Plant Med. 53:57; Gonzalez et al. (1993) Phytochem. 32:433; Kijjoa et al. (1981) Phytochem. 20:1385; Talukdar et al. (2000) Phytochem. 53:155).
Other diarylpropanes isolated from natural sources include those from Pterocarpus marsupium (Fabaceae) (Rao et al. (1984) Phytochem. 23:897; Maurya et al. (1985) J. Nat. Prod. 48:313), Lindera umbellate (Lauraceae) (Morimoto et al. (1985) Chem. Pharm. Bull. 33:2281), Helichrysum mundii (Compositae) (Bohlmann et al. (1978) Phytochem. 17:1935), Viscum angulatum (Loranthaceae) (Lin et al. (2002) J. Nat. Prod. 65:638), those from Acacia tortilis (Leguminosae), which have a smooth muscle relaxing effect (Hagos et al. (1987) Planta Med. 53:27), Xanthocercis zambesiaca (Leguminosae) (Bezuidenhout et al. (1988) Phytochem. 27:2329), and cytotoxic compounds from Knema glomerate (Myristicaceae) (Zeng et al. (1994) J. Nat. Prod. 57:376).
Japanese Patent No. JP05213729A teaches the use of synthetic dihydrochalcones as melanin inhibitors for treatment of skin inflammation, stains, freckles and chromatosis resulting from sun-burn. The claimed compounds have the following general formula:
wherein X is selected from H, OH or ═O; R is H or Me; and R1-R5 are independently selected from H, OR and NH2. Thus, the disclosed dihydrochalcones contain a single hydroxy/methoxy substituent on one phenyl ring and five non-specific substituents (R1-R5) on the second ring. No enzyme inhibition for any of the claimed compositions was measured, rather the inhibition of melanin was determined by measurement of the amount of melanin produced by cultured skin cells and color changes of animal skin following UV stimulation. In the current invention, one of the compounds disclosed in JP05213729A, 1-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-344′-hydroxyphenyl)-1-propanol, was synthesized and its ability to inhibit tyrosinase was measured. This compound exhibited only moderate inhibition of tyrosinase (IC50=305 μM, Table 2.) The present invention teaches novel diarylalkanes which have a unique substitution pattern wherein at least one of the two aromatic rings Ar1 or Ar2 are substituted with 1-5 R′ groups (R′1-R′5) and wherein at least 2 of said of R′1-R′5 are not H). These compounds exhibit an unexpected ability to inhibit the activity of tyrosinase, which is 4-600 fold greater than the compounds taught by JP05213729. It is believed that to date there are no published reports any of the compounds taught in the instant application.